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Research Policy Volume 48, Issue 3, April 2019 1. Title: Intellectual property rights, trade agreements, and international trade Authors: Mercedes Campi; Marco Dueñas. Abstract: The global process of strengthening and harmonization of intellectual property rights (IPRs) systems has been intensified in the last twenty five years by the signing of trade agreements (TAs) that include chapters with intellectual property (IP) provisions and other trade-related issues. This paper provides a first exploration of whether and how the signing of TAs with IP chapters influences bilateral trade flows for a balanced panel of 110 countries and the period 1995–2013. We address methodological issues related to the assessment of the effect of TAs on bilateral trade. We use matching econometrics to evaluate the treatment of TAs with and without IP chapters. In addition, we estimate the effects of TAs on bilateral trade in a more dynamic fashion using a panel data approach based on the gravity model. Also, we perform our analysis for trade in low- and high-IP intensive products. We found that both types of TAs increase bilateral trade but TAs with no IPRs chapters have a stronger positive effect on trade. However, if we include lags to consider that TAs with IP chapters might need a longer implementation time, the net expected increase on trade is similar for both types of TAs. We also found that the effects depend on the development level of countries and on the IP intensity of products. We found a clear positive effect for developed countries, but we do not observe important gains for developing countries in all sectors and to all destinations derived from TAs with IP chapters. This raises the question of whether trade gains can compensate the effort related with IP reforms. 2. Title: Which firms benefit from investments in green energy technologies? – The effect of energy costs Authors: Tobias Stucki Abstract: Firms will invest in green energy technologies only if these investments have an economic pay-off. Based on unique firm-level data from Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, we find that the marginal effect of investments in green energy technologies on productivity is positive only for the 19% of firms with the highest energy costs. These results have major implications for companies and policy makers regarding the design of green energy policies and incentives. 3. Title: Factors that influence the transition of university postdocs to non-academic scientific careers: An exploratory study Authors: Christopher S. Hayter; Marla A. Parker. Abstract: While postdoctoral fellowships are viewed as positions that prepare PhD students for academic careers, studies show that most postdocs will not find tenure-track employment within universities. Postdocs consequently pursue non-academic jobs that differ in the degree to which they utilize a postdoc’s scientific training, yet we know little about how this occurs. To help address this gap, this study inductively investigates factors that may influence a postdoc’s transition to a non-academic career. The study uncovers multiple individual, PI, as well as organizational and policy factors, including the lack of relevant skills, absence of support—and in some cases opposition—from their principal investigators, and poor availability of non-academic career preparation opportunities, among others. Viewed collectively, these elements likely hinder a move to non-academic scientific positions and thus have consequences for postdoc career trajectories and, by extension, the utilization of new knowledge. The paper opens the door for future research, theorization, and policy action that might smooth the transition of postdocs into non-academic careers and potentially improve the impact of publicly-funded research. 4. Title: To have or to be? The interplay between knowledge structure and market identity in knowledge-based alliance formation Authors: Angeloantonio Russo; Clodia Vurro; Rajiv Nag. Abstract: We explore how a firm’s knowledge structure characteristics and market identity—as reflected in its position in the industry value chain and market status—influence knowledge-based alliance (KBA) formation. We propose that a firm’s propensity to form KBAs is affected by the congruence (or misalignment) between its knowledge structure characteristics (i.e., knowledge depth and scope) and the role it plays in the industry, as demanded by its position in the value chain. We further argue that while a firm’s market status can amplify the positive effect of the congruence, thereby enhancing a firm’s proclivity to form KBAs, being prominent can also hurt a firm when it faces a misalignment between its knowledge structure characteristics and externally induced expectations related to its value chain position. We validate our arguments using panel data on 1051 firm-year observations for 197 firms patenting in the global fuel cell industry for the period 1999–2009. By developing a richer understanding of the relationship between a firm’s knowledge-based resources and KBA formation, we answer the call for a better understanding of how and when firms can leverage their internal knowledge configurations to improve their proclivity to form alliances. 5. Title: “All for One and One for All?” - Knowledge broker roles in managing tensions of internal coopetition: The Ubisoft case Authors: Paul Chiambaretto; David Massé; Nicola Mirc. Abstract: Coopetition, i.e., cooperation between competing actors, has become a pervasive strategy for innovative firms. The primary focus of studies investigating coopetition centers on inter-firm relationships, highlighting the benefits, limits and configurational patterns of cooperative relationships between competing firms. Only a small, emerging group of studies seeks to extend the concept to the intra-firm level, stressing the existence and effects of competition and cooperation between units that are part of the same organization. This paper contributes to this latter group by investigating the effects of internal coopetition on knowledge and innovation sharing and highlighting the fundamental role of knowledge brokers in managing the resulting tensions. Based on a qualitative case study of the video game publisher Ubisoft, we stress how the tensions raised by internal coopetitive settings limit knowledge sharing between units, and we analyze the mechanisms through which the knowledge broker helps to overcome these limits. We identify three main functions of this knowledge broker that allow the promotion of knowledge and innovation transfer to occur between coopeting units: (1) protecting the unit’s competitive advantage by introducing a lagging principle in the transfer process, (2) reducing sharing costs by standardizing innovative solutions, and (3) enhancing awareness of and trust in innovative solutions by centralizing knowledge diffusion. 6. Title: Commercializing university research in transition economies: Technology transfer offices or direct industrial funding? Authors: Maksim Belitski; Anna Aginskaja; Radzivon Marozau. Abstract: There is a paucity of knowledge on research commercialization by university scientists worldwide. The objective of this paper is to identify the role that Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) and direct Industrial Funding play in university research commercialization in transition economies of Azerbaijan, Belarus and Kazakhstan during 2015–2017. We do this by developing a novel database and a multi-level model which explains how individual attributes, organizational and ecosystem characteristics explain the extent of knowledge commercialization. We apply the generalized Heckman approach to account for two selection biases, reducing the sample from 2602 to 272 scientists, and further use a mixed-method approach to analyse 27 face-to-face interviews with researchers and TTO managers. The results demonstrate that research commercialization is not associated with the existence and awareness of TTO or the establishment of commercialization contracts via TTO, but the direct industrial funding of university research. Taken together the findings have clear implications for scholars, scientific entrepreneurs, TTOs and investors who aim to exploit university knowledge in transition economies. 7. Title: Human capital and innovation: the importance of the optimal organizational task structure Authors: Tiago Fonseca; Pedro de Faria; Francisco Lima. Abstract: Management literature has identified high-skilled human capital as a crucial dimension of innovation processes at the firm level. In this study, we introduce an alternative view of human capital based on the tasks that firms’ workers perform. We propose a measure of cognitive analytical and interpersonal tasks: the degree of abstractism. We argue that the level of abstractism of a firm has an effect on a firm's propensity to innovate and on its product innovation performance. We hypothesize that while the degree of abstractism has a linear positive relationship with the propensity to innovate, the relationship between abstractism and product innovation performance follows an inverted u-shaped relationship. We find partial support to our hypotheses using data from more than six thousand Portuguese firms. We discuss how these results change our understanding of the relationship between human capital and innovation at the firm level. 8. Title: The workforce of pioneer plants: The role of worker mobility in the diffusion of industries Authors: Ricardo Hausmann; Frank M.H. Neffke. Abstract: Does technology require labour mobility to diffuse? To explore this, we use German social-security data and ask how plants that pioneer an industry in a location – and for which the local labour market offers no experienced workers – assemble their workforces. These pioneers use different recruiting strategies than plants elsewhere: they hire more workers from outside their industry and from outside their region, especially when workers come from closely related industries or are highly skilled. The importance of access to experienced workers is highlighted in the diffusion of industries from western Germany to the post-reunification economy of eastern German. While manufacturing employment declined in most advanced economies, eastern German regions managed to reindustrialise. The pioneers involved in this process relied heavily on expertise from western Germany: while establishing new manufacturing industries in the East, they sourced half of their experienced workers from the West. 9. Title: The long march to catch-up: A history-friendly model of China’s mobile communications industry Authors: Daitian Li; Gianluca Capone; Franco Malerba. Abstract: This paper develops a history-friendly model of the process of catch-up by Chinese firms in the mobile communications industry. It aims to explain how the sectoral environment in terms of segmented markets and generational technological change facilitated the catch-up of domestic firms with respect to foreign multinationals. Segmented markets provided a nurturing environment in peripheral markets for the survival of domestic firms starting with low level capabilities in their infant stage. Generational technological change opened windows of opportunities for domestic firms to catch-up with foreign multinationals in new product segments. Segmented markets and generational technological change allowed domestic firms to leverage their initial advantages in peripheral markets to catch-up in core markets. Counterfactual simulations highlight that the process of catch-up was facilitated by relatedness across technological generations. This paper contributes to the literature on catch-up and industry evolution by illustrating the role of technological change and market regimes in the process of catching-up. 10. Title: Information ambiguity, patents and the market value of innovative assets Authors: Katrin Hussinger; Sebastian Pacher. Abstract: Research and development (R&D) is often essential for firms’ profitability and growth. At the same time, R&D is long-term and risky. We show that innovation activities lead to information ambiguity about the future value of firms’ assets. This effect appears to be more pronounced for small and less reputed firms. Information ambiguity further lowers firms’ market value and, in particular, the market value of innovative assets. We further show that high quality patents mitigate the negative effect of information ambiguity to some extent. 11. Title: Sustainable development of science and scientists: Academic training in life science labs Authors: Sotaro Shibayama Abstract: Academic training, where senior scientists transfer their knowledge and skills to junior scientists through apprenticeship, plays a crucial role in the development of scientists. This study focuses on two aspects of academic training, autonomy and exploration, to investigate how different modes of training are incentivized and how they affect junior scientists’ performance and career prospects. Drawing on a sample of 162 supervising professors and their 791 PhD students in life science labs in Japanese universities, this study suggests two fundamental conflicts in academic training. First, autonomy granted to PhD students under apprenticeship improves their long-term performance but decreases short-term performance. Because the latter effect costs supervisors, while the former does not benefit them in general, this inter-temporal tradeoff creates an incentive conflict between supervisors and students, inducing non-autonomous training. The short-term cost for supervisors can be compensated in the form of labor input or reputation gain from previous students in the long term, but this typically happens when students are trained with limited scope of exploration, which hinders the originality of students’ knowledge production. This reduces the diversity of knowledge production, presenting another incentive conflict between individual scientists and the collective scientific community. 12. Title: Regional diversification and green employment in US metropolitan areas Authors: Nicolò Barbieri, Davide Consoli. Abstract: Adapting or supplanting production and distribution systems to accommodate new criteria of environmental sustainability entails the search for and the recombination of know-how from a variety of domains. How this process plays out in different areas depends crucially on the specific composition of local economic activities. This paper contributes this debate by analysing whether and to what extent regional industrial and occupational diversification affects the change in green employment across 363 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) in the United States between 2006 and 2014. Our findings suggest that industrial unrelated variety within MSAs is a positive and significant predictor of green employment growth whereas related variety has very little impact. Conversely, both related and unrelated diversification across occupations are positively associated with green employment growth. The analysis also uncovers heterogeneity across existing, new and evolving green jobs. 13. Title: Skilled migration and innovation in European industries Authors: Claudio Fassio; Fabio Montobbio; Alessandra Venturini. Abstract: This paper studies the effects of skilled migration on innovation –proxied by patent citations- in European industries between 1994 and 2005, using the French and the UK Labour Force Surveys and the German Microcensus. Highly-educated migrants have a positive effect on innovation, but the effect differs across industries. It is stronger in industries with low levels of overeducation, high levels of FDIs and openness to trade and, finally, in industries with higher ethnic diversity. The aggregate effect of the skilled immigrant is about one third the one of the skilled natives. We tackle the endogeneity of migrants with a set of external and internal instruments. 14. Title: Towards a segmentation of science parks: A typology study on science parks in Europe Authors: Wei Keat Benny Ng; Rianne Appel-Meulenbroek; Myriam Cloodt; Theo Arentze. Abstract: Although science parks are established globally for decades as an innovation policy instrument to foster growth and networking, there is limited attention given towards research into possible types within these real estate objects. Prior attempts in categorising science parks are characterised by the limited number of cases and/or variables. Science parks are believed to enhance innovation, entrepreneurship, and economic value for firms and regions. Past academic research showed mixed results on these performances and it is reasoned that distinct types within science parks exist that might explain these unclear results. We argue that before we can grasp what science parks can do, we should know what they are. Therefore, a survey on science park characteristics was completed by 82 science park managers in Europe. A cluster analysis was conducted which grouped the 82 participating science parks in three types; ‘research’, ‘cooperative’, and ‘incubator’ locations. Next, differences and similarities of these three types within science parks in Europe were analysed as a basis for advancing the academic debate. The types provide further understanding of science parks and offer researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers a means to compare, market, and benchmark science parks more adequately. 15. Title: Breakthrough recognition: Bias against novelty and competition for attention Authors: Sen Chai; Anoop Menon. Abstract: Adding to the literature on the recognition and spread of ideas, and alongside the bias against novelty view documented in prior research, we introduce the perspective that articles compete for the attention of researchers who might build upon them. We investigate this effect by analyzing more than 5.3 million research publications from 1970 to 1999 in the life sciences. In support of our competition for attention perspective, we show that articles covering rarely addressed topics tend to receive more citations and have a higher chance of being breakthrough papers as compared to articles on more popular topics. We also explore conditions under which these effects might vary by using decade subsamples, home- versus foreign-field forward citations, as well as short-, medium- and long-term time windows. Finally, we also find evidence consistent with the previously documented bias against novelty and show that both mechanisms can work simultaneously. 16. Title: Electricity (de)regulation and innovation Authors: Marianna Marino; Pierpaolo Parrotta; Giacomo Valletta. Abstract: In this paper we study the effect of deregulation on innovation in the electricity sector using a sample of 31 OECD countries. Exploiting sharp reductions in the level of product market regulation, explicitly linked to changes in the legal framework, we perform a difference-in-difference analysis by matching data retrieved from the OECD International Regulation, OECD Patent Grants, and UN World Development Indicators databases. Our main findings suggest that a decrease in regulation intensity, following a significant reform, has a negative impact on patents (granted by the European Patent Office). This impact appears to be mainly due to the degree of market contestability. Finally, we find evidence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between regulation and innovation. This may imply that the effect of deregulation on innovation depends on the strength of the deregulatory process. 17. Title: Citizens of somewhere: Examining the geography of foreign and native-born academics’ engagement with external actors Authors: Cornelia Lawson; Ammon Salter; Alan Hughes; Michael Kitson. Abstract: This paper explores the geography of academic engagement patterns of native and foreign-born academics, contrasting how patterns of intranational and international engagement with non-academic actors differ between these two groups. We suggest that foreign-born academics will engage more internationally than their native-born colleagues, whereas native-born academics will have greater levels of intranational engagement. Drawing upon a large multi-source dataset, including a major new survey of all academics working in the UK, we find support for the idea that where people are born influences how they engage with non-academic actors. We also find that these differences are attenuated by an individual’s intranational and international experience, ethnicity and language skills. We explore the implications of these findings for policy to support intranational and international academic engagement. 18. Title: Opening up the feasibility of sustainability transitions pathways (STPs): Representations, potentials, and conditions Authors: Bruno Turnheim; Björn Nykvist. Abstract: Addressing sustainability and low carbon objectives calls for radical departures from existing socio-technical trajectories. The substantial implementation gap between sustainability objectives and current unsustainable paths justifies a continued search for more ambitious system transformations and clarity as to how they can be realised. The aim of this article is to unpack the feasibility of such sustainability transitions pathways (STPs), by identifying the analytical dimensions that need to be considered to address challenges for transitions governance and specifying how they can inform comprehensive evaluation efforts. We aim to offer practical examples of how multiple forms of knowledge can be mobilised to support strategic decision-making, and so complement traditional modelling-based scenario tools. We base our evaluation of STPs on a broad understanding of feasibility and elaborate a frame to mobilise what we see as three ‘facets’ of STPs: representations for exploring sustainability transitions potentials, as well as the conditions under which STPs may have greater chances of becoming realised. The resulting evaluation frame allow us to generate specific prescriptions about STPs feasibility that can focus interdisciplinary research on the relevance of mobilising a plurality of forms of knowledge in evaluation efforts, a more detailed understanding of the potential of a given solution or pathway, and more detailed assessment of different key dimensions. We end by discussing how the notion of STPs feasibility can help open up decision-making processes and what tangible types of interventions are relevant. 19. Title: Advancing innovation in the public sector: Aligning innovation measurement with policy goals Authors: Anthony Arundel; Carter Bloch; Barry Ferguson. Abstract: There is sufficient evidence, drawn from surveys of innovation in the public sector and cognitive testing interviews with public sector managers, to develop a framework for measuring public sector innovation. Although many questions that are covered in the Oslo Manual guidelines for measuring innovation in the private sector can be applied with some modifications to the public sector, public sector innovation surveys need to meet policy needs that require collecting additional types of data. Policy to support public sector innovation requires data on how public sector organizations innovate and how a strategic management approach to innovation can influence the types of innovations that are developed. Both issues require innovations surveys to delve deeply into the innovation processes and strategies that are used by public sector managers. Implementation of the measurement framework proposed in this paper would open up opportunities for a new, policy-relevant research program on public sector innovation. 20. Title: Venture capital investment strategies under financing constraints: Evidence from the 2008 financial crisis Authors: Annamaria Conti; Nishant Dass; Francesco Di Lorenzo; Stuart J.H. Graham. Abstract: This paper employs the 2008 financial crisis as an empirical setting to examine how investment strategies of venture capitalists (VCs) vary in the presence of a liquidity supply shock, and what the performance implications of these strategies are for their portfolio startups. We show that while, on aggregate, funded startups receive no less financing during the financial crisis than in non-crisis times, VCs allocate relatively more resources to startups operating in the VCs’ core sectors. We show that this skew allocation follows from VCs choosing to double down on their core-sector investing, rather than by a changed mix of investors or startups during the financial crisis. These effects are strongest for early-stage startups, for which information problems are most severe. Furthermore, these results are driven by the investment strategies of more-experienced VCs. Building on these findings, we find superior ex post performance among crisis-funded portfolio startups operating in more-experienced VCs’ core sectors. 21. Title: Many hands: The effect of the prior inventor-intermediaries relationship on academic licensing Authors: Young-Choon Kim; Mooweon Rhee; Reddi Kotha. Abstract: We study the role of the relationship among inventors and intermediaries in the licensing of university inventions. We suggest that a prior inventor-intermediaries relationship positively influences licensing rates through selective retention of higher quality relationships and mutual learning in the relationship, enabling intermediaries to reduce both information asymmetry and search costs between inventors and potential licensees. We argue that the influence of a prior inventor-intermediaries relationship on licensing is especially important before intellectual property protection is attained and can be substituted by the buyer-side contacts of inventors and intermediaries. We test these predictions using 919 inventions from the technology transfer office at Stanford University. This study has implications for the policies and design of university technology licensing organizations. 22. Title: The visible hand of cluster policy makers: An analysis of Aerospace Valley (2006-2015) using a place-based network methodology Authors: D. Lucena-Piquero; Jérôme Vicente. Abstract: The paper focuses on cluster policies with particular attention to the role of R&D collaborative incentives in the structuring of knowledge networks in clusters. We disentangle the main network failures in regional innovation systems, and discuss the selection procedures designed by policy makers to foster knowledge collaborations. We draw evidence from the French Aerospace Valley cluster from 2006 to 2015. The case study is based on a dataset of 248 granted research consortia, from which we build 4-cohort knowledge networks that enable us evidencing the evolving structural properties of the cluster over time. We suggest avoiding the bias and limitations of 1 and 2-mode network analysis by developing an original place-based network methodology that emphasizes on structural equivalence and groups’ behaviors. We discuss the results focusing on the convergence degree between the structural properties of the cluster selected by the Program and the policy makers’ objectives. 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