ÐÏà¡±á>þÿ ÊÌþÿÿÿÈÉÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿì¥ÁU ðR¿ëbjbjënën2‰éa‰éaD½ ÿÿÿÿÿÿ·""ÿÿÿÿÁÁÁ8ùÌÅ4ÁÔQlùùùùù---/Q1Q1Q1Q1Q1Q1Q$@S¶öU<�UQ9-----UQùù4ŽQ-Æùù/Q-/Qùÿÿÿÿ@ àB3˜ÔÿÿÿÿópQ¤Q0ÔQ2VcR2V¶/2VSNÈ-------UQUQµè---ÔQ----ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿ2V---------"Qs: World Development Volume 113, Issue 1, January 2019 1. Title: Social policy in South Africa: Navigating the route to social development Authors: Sophie Plagerson; Leila Patel; Tessa Hochfeld; Marianne S. Ulriksen. Abstract: This paper reflects on the trajectory of social policy in South Africa (1994–2017) and on which policy levers present opportunities for cross-country policy transfer, in order to address current social development challenges. The current direction of social policy is described as the result of a compromise between two distinct alternative paradigms whereby the statist transformative and market-oriented residual paradigms are held in tension. On the one hand, a transformative policy perspective draws on human rights and views redistribution as a necessary premise for and means of economic growth. On the other hand in the residual framework, redistribution is envisaged as a secondary function that is dependent on economic growth. Several instances are outlined in which this tension is evident, together with the implications for social policy across the policy cycle: in legislation; in social compact formation; in the selection of social programmes and in their implementation; in gender-mainstreaming and in the engagement of the private sector in social policy. Overall we highlight areas of hybrid policy overlap between these bifurcated ideological, political and institutional frameworks, for example around social transfers and corporate social investment. We also describe instances of conflicting and at times unexpected outcomes, such as the National Health Insurance. Several factors are concluded to be of relevance to the Global South more generally: the importance of constitutionally-legislated rights as a basis for advancing socio-economic claims; the emergence of new social compacts in contexts where there are significant levels of informal employment and unemployment and lastly, the influence of fiscal and institutional capability factors in shaping the direction of social policy and its implementation. 2. Title: Long- and short-term determinants of water user cooperation: Experimental evidence from Central Asia Authors: Iroda Amirova; Martin Petrick; Nodir Djanibekov. Abstract: This study contributes to the understanding of long- and short-term determinants of cooperation among water users. We experimentally investigate the potential of water users’ self-governance in enhancing their contributions to a common pool as opposed to external regulation. Our focus is on the irrigated areas of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Due to their Soviet past, these countries have a reputation for low bottom-up cooperation potential. Based on the different pre-Soviet irrigation traditions of the two study sites, we assess the effectiveness of short-term incentives compared to long term cultural factors of cooperation. History might matter, but we find it does not predetermine the success of current water decentralization in ancient as compared to relatively recently established irrigation sites. Our study reveals that external regulation, in fact, decreases farmers’ cooperation, whereas face-to-face communication increases it. This finding calls into question the top-down approach prevalent in current water policies of the region. Moreover, it suggests the viability of endogenous cooperation and hence encourages the implementation of truly self-governed water management policies in Central Asia. However, the substantial heterogeneity in individual contributions apparent at the village level also signals a warning that one-size-fits-all approaches to local cooperation are unlikely to succeed. 3. Title: Food security in rural sub-Saharan Africa: Exploring the nexus between gender, geography and off-farm employment Authors: Fred Mawunyo Dzanku Abstract: How to eradicate hunger and achieve food security remains a key developmental issue, particular in countries south of the Sahara. Most of the empirical literature focuses on agriculture-based interventions although it is well known that rural households have a gamut of income generating activities that constitute their livelihood. This article uses panel data for six African countries to examine the association between off-farm income and household food security and tests key hypotheses that have not been previously explored. We hypothesize that the association between food security and off-farm income is neither gender-neutral nor the same for households living in low and high agroecological potential areas. Because a nontrivial number of households do not earn off-farm income, we also hypothesize that the food security effect of nonparticipation differs by gender and geography. The results show that although off-farm income has a strong statistically significant association with food security the correlation magnitudes are not as strong. However, off-farm income has a significantly stronger association with food security among female-headed and poor region households than it has among male-headed and rich region households in most countries. The gender-related result supports the notion that households tend to benefit more from women's greater control over resources than when such resources are controlled by men. We also show that nonparticipation in off-farm income is more costly, food security wise, for female-headed households and households who live in low agroecological potential regions than it is for male-headed households and those who live in high potential regions. The rural nonfarm sector in high agroecological potential areas tends to be associated with greater poverty reduction among female-headed households than among male-headed households. From a policy and development practice perspective, the results suggest that focusing rural development policies on factors that raise farm productivity alone (e.g., input subsidies) may not lead to gender-neutral welfare outcomes. This means that interventions such as rural nonfarm microcredit schemes that targets female-headed households or women in general could help achieve gender-equitable poverty reduction, as others have shown. 4. Title: Remittances, finance and growth: Does financial development foster the impact of remittances on economic growth? Authors: Izabela Sobiech Abstract: There is no consensus in the literature regarding the long-run impact of remittances on economic growth. Previous studies have shown that it might be related to financial development in the transfer-receiving country, but the direction of the link remained unclear. I contribute to this literature by using a newly created index of overall financial development and two different estimation methods. I measure the importance of remittances given financial development for economic growth in developing countries. As there is no widely accepted measure of financial sector development, I estimate an index of overall financial conditions. It is created by means of an unobserved components model and used to determine the relevance of the financial sector as a transmission channel for remittances to affect economic growth. I show that the more financially developed a country is, the smaller the impact of remittances on economic growth. Remittances can foster growth, but the effect is significant only at low levels of financial development. This is in line with previous studies, which found remittances and financial development to be substitutes. However, the interaction between the two factors becomes weaker once size, depth and efficiency of the financial sector are taken into account. My results suggest that, while attracting migrants’ transfers can have important short-run poverty-alleviating advantages, in the long-run it might be more beneficial for governments to foster financial sector development. 5. Title: Gender and generational patterns of African deagrarianization: Evolving labour and land allocation in smallholder peasant household farming, 1980–2015 Authors: Deborah Fahy Bryceson Abstract: This article traces smallholder peasant household production and reproduction trends against the background of profound change in African agriculture’s terms of trade between 1980 and 2015. The gender and generational dynamics of African peasant households, which evolved under European colonial policies from the late 19th century and largely persisted in the early post-independence era, were disrupted by the 1970s oil crises. By the 1980s, peasant labor displacement was gaining momentum, as evidenced by declining smallholder commercial agriculture, often but not always accompanied by rural out-migration. Ensuing differentiated involvement of peasant smallholder family members in unfolding processes of deagrarianization and depeasantization are explored on the basis of statistical data and qualitative case studies. The article’s broad spatial focus and 35-year overview are accommodated in a human geography methodology, which synthesizes multi-disciplinary social scientists’ research findings on the gender/age division of labor, allocation of decision-making power and welfare provisioning patterns within smallholder households. Spatial and temporal analysis of sex/age ratios derived from published data on sectoral labour force participation, quantitative surveys of intra-household labour time allocation and national census population data provide insight into the differential effects of deagrarianization on household members. Salient trends are: labor contraction in male commercial peasant family farming, smallholder subsistence-based land cultivation squeezed by medium-scale commercial farmers, female resource control and labor autonomy continuing to be impinged by male patriarchal attitudes, and an emerging tendency for “older women left behind” in the countryside, who provide an agrarian fallback for returned migrant family members and other members engaged in local non-agricultural occupations needing subsistence food support. 6. Title: Local sourcing in developing countries: The role of foreign direct investments and global value chains Authors: Vito Amendolagine; Andrea F. Presbitero; Roberta Rabellotti; Marco Sanfilippo. Abstract: The local sourcing of intermediate products is one the main channels for foreign direct investment (FDI) spillovers. This paper investigates whether and how participation and positioning in the global value chains (GVCs) of host countries is associated to local sourcing by foreign investors. Matching two firm-level data sets on 19 Sub-Saharan African countries and Vietnam to country-sector level measures of GVC involvement, we find that more intense GVC participation and upstream specialization are associated to a higher share of inputs sourced locally by foreign investors. These effects are larger in countries with stronger rule of law and better education. 7. Title: Violence and the formation of hopelessness: Evidence from internally displaced persons in Colombia Authors: Andrés Moya; Michael R. Carter. Abstract: We explore the impact of violence on beliefs about socioeconomic mobility. For this purpose, we bring together data on the severity of the household-level experience of violence, symptoms of psychological trauma, and subjective probabilities of future positions in a ladder of life for a sample of internally displaced persons in Colombia. After controlling for current socioeconomic circumstances and asset losses, we find that the experience of more severe violence dampens the beliefs about socioeconomic mobility. The estimated impacts are large: a one standard deviation increase in the number of violent events experienced by the household raises the perceived probability of extreme poverty in the following year by 54 percent relative to the mean. In the long run, the expected likelihood of extreme poverty is almost three times higher for victims at the 4th quartile of the distribution of the severity of violence than for victims at the 1st quartile. Additional evidence suggests that psychological trauma explains this result, identifying a channel by which these hopeless beliefs can become self-confirming. Together, the results point to the existence of a behavioral poverty trap and highlight the importance of rethinking the strategies to promote the socioeconomic recovery of victims of violence. 8. Title: Agrarian livelihoods under siege: Carbon forestry, tenure constraints and the rise of capitalist forest enclosures in Ghana Authors: Moses Mosonsieyiri Kansanga; Isaac Luginaah. Abstract: Drawing on theoretical insights from agrarian political economy, and based on empirical research in the High Forest Zone of Ghana using in-depth interviews and participant observation, this paper examined the context-specific but often less highlighted impacts of REDD+-based carbon forest development activities on local agrarian livelihoods. We find that although REDD+ intends to align local communities to benefit financially for contributions to carbon forestry, its uptake in the Ghanaian context has created entry points for the displacement of smallholder farmers through unregulated profit-driven and restrictive plantation-style carbon forest activities. This yields landless smallholder farmers whose labour is craftily integrated into a capitalist carbon forestry regime as tree planters, with many others striving to reproduce themselves through exploitative sharecropping arrangements and corrupt ‘backdoor’ land deals. We emphasize that, ‘more than carbon’ accumulation engendered by REDD+ is fast moving beyond land grabs to a more complex dimension in which the labour and financial resources of marginalized groups are further appropriated by forest investors, and their relatively powerful counterparts in what we term intimate exploitation. Given the ongoing plight of smallholder farmers, particularly the multitude of ‘hungry’ migrant farmers who seek ‘salvation’ in the High Forest Zone, it is obvious that REDD+ is pushed at the expense of ensuring food security. To sustainably address current land-related agricultural production bottlenecks and empower local communities to directly benefit from REDD+, we recommend that rather than centralizing both carbon rights and land rights in the hands of the state and a few private investors, community forestlands should be returned to local people under community-led forest management approaches. Local control of both land and carbon stocks will promote sustainable coexistence of smallholder agriculture and carbon forestry. 9. Title: Can social programs break the vicious cycle between poverty and obesity? Evidence from urban Mexico Authors: Pierre Levasseur Abstract: This article analyzes how social interventions offer a solution to counteract the spread of overweight among the poor. Focusing on the Mexican conditional cash transfers program, we assess the average effect of a long run enrollment on adult body mass index and waist-to-height ratio. An original triple difference approach, which distinguishes over time participants from nonparticipants and stayers from leavers, is implemented. We find that the expansion of this program (to urban areas) has a protective effect on adult bodyweight for staying participants, but not an absolute effect. Moreover, the global impact of the program to reduce obesity is halved due to a low rate of participation in Mexican cities. Furthermore, we find health-risky externalities related to the cash component of the program. Indeed, the amount of cash payments is positively correlated with abdominal fat concentration, especially among enrolled women and for short-run enrollments. To sum up, our results bring new insights to the complementary role of both program components (cash and conditionalities). 10. Title: Structural reforms and firms’ productivity: Evidence from developing countries Authors: Wilfried A.K. Kouamé; Sampawende J.-A. Tapsoba. Abstract: This paper assesses the effects of selected structural reforms on labor productivity growth for 37 developing countries over the 2006–14 period. It combines newly constructed reform indexes using the IMF Monitoring of Fund Arrangements dataset and firm-level productivity from the World Bank Enterprise Surveys. The paper highlights the following results. Structural reforms under consideration in this study, i.e., financial, fiscal, real sector, and trade reforms, significantly improve productivity at the firm level. Interestingly, real sector reforms have the most sizeable effects on firms’ productivity. The relationship between reforms and productivity is nonlinear and shaped by certain firms’ characteristics, including financial access, a distortionary environment, and firms’ size. The pace of reforms matters since being a “strong reformer” is associated with a clear productivity dividend for firms. Finally, except for financial and trade reforms, all macroeconomic reforms considered are bilaterally complementary in improving firms’ productivity. The findings are robust to several sensitivity checks including alternatives measure of productivity, and a counterfactual experiment based on unsuccessful reforms. 11. Title: What’s in it for Africa? European Union fishing access agreements and fishery exports from developing countries Authors: Cecilia Hammarlund; Anna Andersson. Abstract: Fishing access agreements have been widely criticized but there is little quantitative evidence of their effects on the economies of developing countries. The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of the European Union’s fishing access agreements on 15 African countries’ fish exports to the OECD. More specifically, we investigate the effects on the extensive and intensive margins of trade, i.e. the probability and volume of trade, when fishing access agreements that have previously been active become inactive. Using the gravity model of trade and detailed data on exports of fishery products for the period 1992–2010 we show that trade with the OECD is negatively affected when EU fishing access agreements are inactive. Export volumes as well as the probability to trade with OECD countries are affected. We look at effects of mixed agreements (with many different species) as well as tuna agreements (tuna and tuna-like species) and find that mixed agreements affect both margins whereas tuna agreements only affect the intensive margin. We conclude that EU fishing access agreements could be a channel through which developing countries gain from trade but that the gains hinge on proper redistribution of benefits and proper management of resources. 12. Title: Moving to despair? Migration and well-being in Pakistan Authors: Joyce Chen; Katrina Kosec; Valerie Mueller. Abstract: Internal migration has the potential to substantially increase incomes, especially for the poor in developing countries, and yet migration rates remain low. We evaluate the impact of internal migration on both objective and subjective measures of well-being using a unique longitudinal study in rural Pakistan spanning 1991–2013. We account for selection using covariate matching. Migrants have roughly 35–40 percent higher consumption, yet are less likely to report being happy, calm and/or in excellent health, and more likely to report having been sick recently. Our results suggest that deteriorating physical health coupled with feelings of stress and relative deprivation underlie the disparity between objective and subjective well-being. Thus, despite substantial monetary gains from migration, people may be happier and less mentally distressed by remaining at home. If traditional market mechanisms cannot reduce psychic costs, it may be more constructive to address regional inequality by shifting production – rather than workers – across space. 13. Title: Does fiscal decentralization enhance citizens’ access to public services and reduce poverty? Evidence from Côte d’Ivoire municipalities in a conflict setting Authors: Tiangboho Sanogo Abstract: Fiscal decentralization has been implemented in many countries with an explicit objective of improving public service delivery and reduce poverty. However, its effectiveness in achieving these goals are much debated and the empirical literature has mostly focused on poverty reduction using cross-country analysis. This paper analyses whether, and how, the devolution of revenue raising responsibilities to Côte d’Ivoire’ municipalities enhances access to public services and contributes to reducing poverty. Local revenue sources that reflect municipalities’ autonomy in decision-making are considered to measure revenue decentralization. An adjusted multidimensional poverty index for access to public services and a headcount poverty index are also calculated at the local level using the Household Living Standard Survey. The empirical analysis uses a grouped fixed effect approach, combined with a two-stage least squares methodology with panel corrected standard errors clustered by département to address both time-varying heterogeneity and local revenue endogeneity. Our study finds that increased local revenue positively affects access to public services and reduces poverty. However, there is evidence that revenue decentralization has a more robust effect on access to public service, than on poverty. This effect seems to work mainly through enhancing access to education more than access to health, water, and sanitation services. Interestingly, our results indicate that municipalities are more likely to improve access to public services in less ethnically diverse localities and in urban zones. The study shows that the conflict has compounded the existing problems of access to public services with no statistically significant effect on poverty. 14. Title: Impacts of CDM projects on sustainable development: Improving living standards across Brazilian municipalities? Authors: Yadira Mori-Clement Abstract: The goal of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is both emission reduction and sustainable development, but while emission reductions generate revenues for the project developer, no such benefit results from the achievement of sustainable development. The objective of this research is therefore to analyze to which extent CDM investments have led to sustainable development benefits, and whether there is a difference in these effects between renewable energy and waste handling and disposal projects. Complementary to existing studies, which are based on potential effects reported ex-ante by project developers, this paper aims at quantifying impacts of CDM projects on sustainable development based on empirical data. Using data for years 2000 (pre-CDM) and 2010 (post-CDM) for Brazilian municipalities, this paper combines difference-in-differences assessment with matching techniques to identify the effect of CDM investments on development and poverty indicators by distinguishing for four project’s types: hydro, biomass energy, landfill gas and methane avoidance. Results show that CDM project types have stimulated local income and labor opportunities but only hydro projects have contributed to reduce poverty at the municipal level for the period analyzed. 15. Title: Urban energy transitions and rural income generation: Sustainable opportunities for rural development through charcoal production Authors: Harriet Elizabeth Smith; Daniel Jones; Frank Vollmer; Sophia Baumert; ... Genevieve Patenaude. Abstract: Sub-Saharan Africa’s charcoal sector is rarely considered a mechanism for rural development or poverty alleviation; instead, current regulations often marginalise rural producers. The development of a sustainable sector, that does not further marginalise rural populations, is restricted by limited understanding of these stakeholders. We assess the heterogeneity of rural producers supplying two differentially sized urban charcoal markets in Mozambique. Drawing on data from 767 household surveys, our findings suggest that the size of the urban market affects the type of rural producer and their scales of production. Overall household income of producers supplying the larger urban market were proportionally more dependent on charcoal for income generation; small-scale producers in particular relied most on charcoal income, contributing >95% of household incomes. In contrast, producers supplying the smaller market had more diversified incomes, and were thus less dependent on charcoal income. Larger-scale producers were generally wealthier; their absolute incomes were higher and they were proportionally the least dependent on charcoal income. Further findings suggest that rural charcoal production was not necessarily the domain of the poorest of the poor and the existence of producers trapped in small-scale production may be a consequence of larger urban markets, rather than an intrinsic characteristic of the sector. Predicted growth of smaller urban areas and associated higher demand for charcoal will provide substantial opportunities for rural income generation, most likely leading to shifts in producers and production scales. Rather than transferring existing formal approaches, which marginalise rural stakeholders, small urban areas provide opportunities to develop equitable production systems, with potential to deliver sustainable energy and rural development. The heterogeneity of rural producers calls for better-targeted interventions that incorporate the importance of charcoal production for rural livelihoods. 16. Title: Universal health coverage: A (social insurance) job half done? Authors: Sven Neelsen; Supon Limwattananon; Owen O'Donnell; Eddy van Doorslaer. Abstract: Evidence on households’ ability to smooth consumption over health shocks is mostly obtained from environments where there is little or no formal insurance of either medical expenses or sickness-related earnings losses. To establish whether households remain economically vulnerable to illness after the introduction of universal health coverage (UHC), we examine the impact of health shocks of different severity on informal workers in Thailand who are entitled to comprehensive public medical care but lack social protection of earnings. Using three years of panel data, we find that the most severe illness that strikes an initially healthy worker reduces household earnings by almost one third and, despite UHC, raises out-of-pocket spending on medical care by around two thirds. However, households are able to protect spending on goods other than medical care by drawing on informal insurance, credit and savings. These coping strategies substitute for the lack of formal earnings insurance and fill gaps in the effective health care coverage. On average, the combination of UHC and informal insurance of the residual risks does a reasonably good job of protecting living standards from the economic impact of illness, at least in the short term. 17. Title: Household behaviour in times of political change: Evidence from Egypt Authors: Yvonne Giesing; Almedina Musi. Abstract: Using representative household survey data, we study the short-term effects of the 2011 Egyptian uprisings on household behaviour in terms of education and health expenditure as well as savings. We construct a measure of political instability by analysing the number of fatalities during political protests throughout the country. Difference-in-Difference estimations show that affected households increased spending on education, especially on their sons’ higher education. The increase in education expenditure is particularly prominent in areas where households were in favour of a regime change. We argue that after the fall of Mubarak those households had a positive outlook towards the future, with better labour market prospects, and therefore invested more in their sons’ education. At the same time, households decreased spending on health and increased savings, which can be interpreted as precautionary behaviour. Our results are robust to placebo tests, excluding Cairo, spillovers and alternative ways of measuring political instability. 18. Title: Unintended consequence of trade on regional dietary patterns in rural India Authors: Cherry Law Abstract: This paper investigates how trade liberalisation has contributed to a dietary shift from one dominated by traditional staples to one high in animal products, a trend that is associated with both improved intake in micronutrients, and higher rates of obesity and other diet-related diseases in developing countries. In the context of India’s trade liberalisation in 1991, we examine whether the difference in consumption of cereals and animal products across rural regions before and after the reforms can be attributed to their differential degree of exposure to tariff reductions. The estimates reveal that trade reforms have a negative impact on cereal consumption through reducing edible oil prices and a positive effect on the consumption of animal products through enhancing consumer tastes towards these foods. These findings provide evidence for the role of trade in supporting dietary diversity and highlight the need for complementary policies to enhance the coherence between trade policy and nutrition actions. 19. Title: The effect of commodity price shocks on public lands distribution: Evidence from Colombia Authors: Michael Albertus Abstract: How do commodity shocks impact the privatization of public lands? This paper examines this question through the lens of the establishment of private property rights over public lands in Colombia, which has had one of the Western Hemisphere's largest public land distribution programs during the last century. Using data on exogenous international coffee price shocks along with data on land suitability for coffee production as determined by agro-climatic conditions and roughly 250,000 public land grants, I find that coffee price increases generate more public land grants in municipalities where land is more suited to coffee production. Additional tests suggest that the findings are driven by the power of organized cultivators to steer the land grant process in their favor. The findings shed light on the role of organized actors in the countryside extending private extension of control over public territory – a phenomenon that has drastically diminished public lands and natural spaces in numerous countries over the last two centuries. 20. Title: Do incentives matter when working for god? The impact of performance-based financing on faith-based healthcare in Uganda Authors: Jan Duchoslav; Francesco Cecchi. Abstract: Can extrinsic incentives motivate faith-based healthcare providers? This paper challenges the finding that religious providers are intrinsically motivated to serve (poor) patients, and that extrinsic incentives may crowd-out such motivation. We use a unique panel of output and expenditure data from small faith-based nonprofit healthcare facilities in Uganda to estimate the effect of introducing performance-based financing. The output of the observed facilities is less than 50% of their potential. Performance-based financing increases output and efficiency robustly by at least 27%, with no apparent reduction in the perceived quality of services. Religious nonprofit healthcare providers may well be intrinsically motivated, but respond positively to extrinsic incentives. Whether working for god or not, incentives matter. 21. Title: Grants vs. credits for improving the livelihoods of ultra-poor: Evidence from Ethiopia Authors: Getaw Tadess; Tadiwos Zewdie. Abstract: Reaching the ultra-poor and enhancing graduation have long been challenges in many social protection programs. This paper compares the behaviors and performances of most vulnerable, ultra-poor and risk-averse households, who have been granted cash transfers for livelihoods investment, with the behaviors and performance of credit recipients, who are relatively better-off and willing to take credit risks. Using data from the Ethiopian pilot program, we tested if freely provided cash is used less efficiently as the sunk cost hypothesis portrays. Our data revealed that credit recipients indeed perform better than grant recipients. However, when we control wealth and other household characteristics, grant-based investments perform better than credit-based livelihood investments. Grants were allocated more likely to the planned investment than credits and the performances of the former is higher than the latter, both with and without controlling the intensive knowledge supports provided to grant recipients. The result is consistent and robust across different estimation approaches. This implies that the sunk cost hypothesis is not an important disincentive in livelihood grants. We concluded that livelihood grant (asset transfer) not only helps to reach the excluded ultra-poor but also to improve the effectiveness and productivity of rural livelihood investments. We further explained the possible reason for the superiority of grant over loan and its implication on graduation and program costs. 22. Title: Long-term impacts of an unanticipated spike in food prices on child growth in Indonesia Authors: Futoshi Yamauchi; Donald F. Larson. Abstract: Unanticipated spikes in food prices can increase malnutrition among the poor, with lasting consequences; however, livelihood strategies that include producing food for home consumption are expected to offer a measure of protection. To test this, we use anthropometric and consumption data from Indonesia collected before and after the 2007/08 food price crisis. Based on standardized height and weight measures, our results indicate that soaring food prices had a significant and negative impact on child growth among households that did not produce food for home consumption. A corresponding effect was undetectable for the households that did. The results remain robust when income effects from increased commercial sales, and possible attritions through migration and fostering are considered. Further, local food price changes were uncorrelated with the share of producing-households in the village and village’s initial average child nutrition status, suggesting that observed outcomes are directly attributable to market events and livelihood strategies. Gender differences were not detected. Our findings imply that the food price crises can have negative impacts on children, potentially leading to lifelong disadvantages. Livelihood choices that include food production provide protection against price hikes but may trap households on low income paths. 23. Title: Different forms of household wealth are associated with opposing risks for HIV infection in East Africa Authors: Craig Hadley; Amanda Maxfield; Daniel Hruschka. Abstract: The relationship between material wealth and HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa has been the subject of considerable debate in part because many studies show that wealth is positively associated with infection. Others have critiqued such results, suggesting that the widely used indicators of wealth underlying these results fail to capture the diversity of livelihood portfolios in East Africa. Using population representative data from 35,799 households in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania, we estimate household wealth along two different dimensions, associated respectively with success in wage economies and agricultural economies. Regression models for men and women show consistent and opposing associations between type of wealth and HIV infection. Controlling for age, education, and urban dwelling, increasing achievement along the wage economy dimension is positively (often significantly) associated with HIV infection. In contrast, increasing achievement along the agricultural economy dimension is often negatively associated with HIV infection, and is never associated with increased HIV risk. Interestingly, variables to assess risky sexual behaviors do not mediate the relationship between either type of wealth and HIV infection. Our results suggest that future studies on the relationship between HIV and wealth need to take into account the different dimensions of household wealth found in East African countries. Our results also generate new, important questions about why and how different forms of wealth drive HIV infection. 24. Title: The power of lump sums: Using maternity payment schedules to reduce the gender asset gap in households reached by Brazil’s Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer Authors: Gregory Duff Morton Abstract: Can cash assistance have an influence on gender relations inside a household? What are the processes through which this influence occurs? The present article investigates the everyday uses of money that women receive from two gender-targeted social programs in rural Brazil. Bolsa Família is a conditional cash transfer that disburses money to women every month. The Maternity Wage is a program that gives a sizeable lump sum to women when they become pregnant. Drawing from two years of ethnographic research in two villages in Northeastern Brazil, I show how these different payment schedules can lead to different patterns of investment in assets. I find that women typically spend monthly cash assistance on items, like clothing and furniture, that correspond to local stereotypes about feminine property. By contrast, lump sums are used by women to purchase income-generating assets, like cows and fields, that would normally be held by men. Monthly money reinforces gendered stereotypes about assets, while lump-sum money challenges those stereotypes. Lump sums thereby enable women to become the owners of wealth that generates a flow of income over time. I identify two key qualities that underlie this change: a payment’s large size and its unpredictability. These qualities affect the mental accounting that beneficiaries use to understand their money and the institutions through which they save it. By outlining such processes, the article brings the literature on conditional cash transfers into dialogue with studies on the gender asset gap. Lump sums can help to re-gender a household’s assets. This finding suggests that cash assistance policy, particularly in the case of conditional cash transfers, might be able to have an effect on gender equity by making use of targeted lump sums. 25. Title: Lithium and development imaginaries in Chile, Argentina and Bolivia Authors: Javiera Barandiarán Abstract: The world’s largest deposits of lithium lie in brines found underneath salt flats in the desert between Chile, Argentina and Bolivia. Globally, lithium may reduce fossil fuel use by making batteries for cars and renewable energy storage more affordable. This article analyzes ongoing debates about lithium in these three countries to identify what hopes, fears and expectations different stakeholders are bringing to debates about lithium. My approach builds on the idea of resource imaginaries, particularly the concept of sociotechnical imaginaries that highlights the importance of science and technology to projections of desirable futures. I analyze the tensions, visions and metaphors used by different stakeholders, including activists, the media, and state and industry officials, to imagine and thus legitimate lithium extraction. This study finds three co-existing positions in these debates: lithium as a commodity, as a strategic resource or as the subject of a sociotechnical imaginary. Chile, Argentina and Bolivia are converging on the last of these, best described as a reimagining of the relationship between mining and development in which lithium, through innovation and industry, will redefine the relationship between Latin American economies and global markets. This imaginary projects a binary between raw and industrial materials and deterministically assumes that science and technology will transform the former into the latter. Disagreements and challenges notwithstanding, the article argues that this imaginary is evidence of a crisis of confidence in development that is creating space for a more dynamic debate about the social value of mining and the proper role of the state in development. This convergence will have also implications for how sustainable, equitable and reliable lithium production will be. 26. Title: Pathways to accountability in rural Guatemala: A qualitative comparative analysis of citizen-led initiatives for the right to health of indigenous populations Authors: Alison Hernández; Ana Lorena Ruano; Anna-Karin Hurtig; Isabel Goicolea; ... Walter Flores. Abstract: Strengthening citizen-led accountability initiatives is a critical rights-based strategy for improving health services for indigenous and other marginalized populations. As these initiatives have gained prominence in health and other sectors, there is great interest in how they operate and what makes them effective. Scholarly focus is shifting from measuring the efficacy of their tools and tactics to deepening understanding of the context-sensitive pathways through which change occurs. This paper examines how citizen-led initiatives’ actions to strengthen grassroots networks, monitor health services and engage with authorities interact with local sociopolitical conditions and contribute to accountability achievements for indigenous populations in rural Guatemala. We used qualitative comparative analysis to first systematize and score structured qualitative monitoring data gathered in 29 municipal-level initiatives, and then analyze patterns in the presence of different forms of citizen action, contextual conditions and accountability outcomes across cases. Our study identifies pathways of collective action through which citizen-led initiatives bolster their power to engage and negotiate with authorities and bring about solutions to some of the health system deficiencies that they face. While constructive engagement is widely advocated as the most effective approach to interaction with authorities, our study indicates that success depends on wider processes of community mobilization. To overcome the power asymmetries that marginalized groups face when engaging with authorities, iterative processes of network building and participatory monitoring as well as persistence in their demands are critical. These processes further provide an enabling environment for moving beyond the local and projecting indigenous voices to engage with authorities at higher governance levels. Initiatives also applied adversarial legal action as an alternative engagement strategy that contributed to bolster citizen power. Our findings indicate the potential of collective power generated by the actions of citizen-led initiatives to enable marginalized populations to hold authorities accountable for health system failures. 27. Title: When food systems meet sustainability – Current narratives and implications for actions Authors: Christophe Béné; Peter Oosterveer; Lea Lamotte; Inge D. Brouwer; ... Colin K. Khoury. Abstract: The concept of food system has gained prominence in recent years amongst both scholars and policy-makers. Experts from diverse disciplines and backgrounds have in particular discussed the nature and origin of the “unsustainability” of our modern food systems. These efforts tend, however, to be framed within distinctive disciplinary narratives. In this paper we propose to explore these narratives and to shed light on the explicit -or implicit- epistemological assumptions, mental models, and disciplinary paradigms that underpin those. The analysis indicates that different views and interpretations prevail amongst experts about the nature of the “crisis”, and consequently about the research and priorities needed to “fix” the problem. We then explore how sustainability is included in these different narratives and the link to the question of healthy diets. The analysis reveals that the concept of sustainability, although widely used by all the different communities of practice, remains poorly defined, and applied in different ways and usually based on a relatively narrow interpretation. In so doing we argue that current attempts to equate or subsume healthy diets within sustainability in the context of food system may be misleading and need to be challenged. We stress that trade-offs between different dimensions of food system sustainability are unavoidable and need to be navigated in an explicit manner when developing or implementing sustainable food system initiatives. Building on this overall analysis, a framework structured around several entry points including outcomes, core activities, trade-offs and feedbacks is then proposed, which allows to identify key elements necessary to support the transition toward sustainable food systems. 28. Title: SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth – A gendered analysis Authors: Shirin M. Rai; Benjamin D. Brown; Kanchana N. Ruwanpura. Abstract: SDG 8 calls for promoting ‘sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all’. Even as it highlights the importance of labour rights for all, it also makes visible some significant tensions. We note, for example, that despite many critiques of narrow economic measures of growth, the focus here remains on GDP and per capita growth. This is problematic, we argue, because the GDP productive boundary excludes much of social reproductive work. This puts SDG8 in tension with SDG 5 which calls for the recognition of the value of unpaid care and domestic work. There has been a significant increase in the rate of working women in the formal and informal sector. However, there has not been a subsequent gender shift in the doing of social reproductive work. In this paper we argue SDG 8’s focus on decent work and economic growth is inadequate; that productive employment and decent work for all men and women by 2030 needs to take into account the value and costs of social reproduction. We trace key historical debates on work to argue that both gender and labour rights have to underpin SDG 8 if its promise of inclusive, sustainable and decent work is to be realized. 29. Title: Electoral incentives to combat mosquito-borne illnesses: Experimental evidence from Brazil Authors: Taylor C. Boas; F. Daniel Hidalgo. Abstract: Mosquito-borne illnesses present significant health challenges to the developing world. If citizens are informed about their government’s efforts to combat these diseases, will they reward incumbents who have performed well and punish those who have done poorly at this task? Electoral sanctioning requires that combatting disease be a sufficiently salient concern, which, in turn, is likely to depend upon subjective perceptions of the risks posed by particular illnesses. Epidemics typically prompt stronger risk perceptions than endemic diseases, but where both types circulate jointly, the more familiar endemic disease may determine public reactions. The salience of health threats also varies among individuals; those with a self-interest in prevention or a personal connection to the effects of mosquito-borne illnesses may react more strongly. This study presents the results of a face-to-face survey experiment in Pernambuco, Brazil, informing subjects about their mayor’s use of federal funds to combat mosquito-borne illnesses such as dengue (an endemic disease) and Zika and chikungunya (both epidemics). We examine the effect of this information on intended vote for the mayor’s reelection. For the full sample, the treatment has no significant effect. However, we find a large and significant punishment effect among voters who know someone affected by microcephaly or the Zika virus. Drawing on survey and focus group evidence, we argue that most voters fail to act upon our treatment information because mosquito control is a low-salience concern primarily associated with endemic rather than epidemic diseases. Our study constitutes the first experimental evidence as to whether informing citizens about government public health efforts affects voting behavior. 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